1. Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Bruce W. Hardy, “Will Public Ignorance and Partisan Election of Judges Undermine Public Trust in the Judiciary?”, Daedalus (2008); Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Michael Hennesy, “Public Understanding of and Support for the Courts,” The Georgetown Law Journal, vol. 95, pp. 899–902.
2. Richard Niemi and Jane Junn, Civic Education: What Makes Students Learn (New Haven: Yale UP, 1998) (Analyzes 1988 NAEP Civics Assessment, which measures factual knowledge along with cognitive skills, such as interpreting political speeches and news articles, and found that civics courses have a positive relationship with knowledge even after other factors were controlled); James Gimpel, J. Celeste Lay, and Jason
Schuknecht, Cultivating Democracy: Civic Environments and Political Socialization in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003) (Using their own Metro Civic Values Survey conducted in Maryland in 1999–2000, find that taking a government course raised students' political knowledge by 3 percent). See also the California Campaign for the Civic Mission of Schools, The California Survey of Civic Education, via <www.cms–ca. org/civic_survey_final.pdf>, which finds a positive association between instruction in government, law, and politics, on one
hand, and students' knowledge, on the other, after demographics are controlled.
3. Mark Hugo Lopez et al., “Schools, Education Policy, and the Future
of the First Amendment,” Political Communication, vol. 26, 1 (2006).
4. Carnegie Corporation and CIRCLE, “The Civic Mission of Schools” (2003), via <www.civicmissionofschools.org/ site/campaign/documents/CivicMission
ofSchools.pdf>.
5. Patrick Meirick and Daniel Wackman, “Kids Voting and Political Knowledge”, Social Science Quarterly , vol. 85, no. 5 (2004), 6. Tim Vercellotti and Elizabeth Matto, “CIRCLE Working Paper 72: The Classroom–Kitchen Table Connection: The Effects of Political Discussion on Youth Knowledge and Efficacy,” (2010), via <www.civicyouth.org/wp–content/ uploads/2010/09/WP_72_Vercello>.
7. Michael McDevitt, “CIRCLE Working Paper 7: The Civic Bonding of School and Family: How Kids Voting Students Enliven the Domestic Sphere,” (2003), via <www.civicyouth.org/circle– working–paper–07–the–civic–bonding–of–school–and–family–how–kids–voting–students–enliven–the–domestic–sphere>.
8. Michael X. Delli Carpini and Scott Keeter, What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters (New Haven: Yale UP, 1996); Henry Milner, “CIRCLE Working Paper 60: The Informed Political Participation of Young Canadians and Americans,” (2006), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP60Milner.pdf>.
9. For a list of skills developed and endorsed by 33 scholars, civic leaders, and federal officials, see “Special Report: Civic Skills and Federal Policy,” Around the CIRCLE: Research and Practice, vol. 8, 1 (January 2011).
10. Niemi and Junn ( supra at note 2) and Gimpel, et al., ( supra at note 2) both find
positive associations between course–taking and academic skills measured on civics
tests. Melissa K. Comber finds correlations with confidence: “Civics Curriculum and
Civic Skills: Recent Evidence,” CIRCLE Fact Sheet (2003), via <www.civicyouth.org/fact–
sheet–civics–curriculum–and–civic–skills–recent–evidence>.
11. Dennis Barr, “Continuing a Tradition of Research on the Foundations of Democratic Education: The National Professional Development and Evaluation Project,” Facing History and Ourselves (2010), via <www.facinghistoryorg/system/files/Continuing_a_Tradition_v93010_0.pdf>.
12. Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1995), p. 305.
13. Constance Flanagan and Leslie Gallay, “CIRCLE Working Paper 61: Adolescent Development of Trust,” (2008), via <www.civicyouth.org/circle–releases–new–working–paper–on–how–adolescent–develop–trust/>.
14. Constance Flanagan, Tara Stoppa,et al., “Schools and Social Trust,” in Lonnie R. Sherrod, Judith Torney–Purta, and Constance Flanagan (eds.), Handbook of Research on Civic Engagement in Youth (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010), pp. 318–9.
15. Joseph Kahne and Ellen Middaugh, “Democracy for Some: The Civic Opportunity Gap in High School,” in James Youniss and Peter Levine (eds.), Engaging Young People in Civic Life (Nashville: Vanderbilt UP, 2009), pp. 50–52.
16. Samuel L. Popkin and Michael Dimock, “Political Knowledge and Citizen Competence,” in Stephen Elkin and Karol Soltan (eds.), Citizen Competence and
Democratic Institutions (University Park: Penn State Press, 1999).
17. Flanagan et al., supra at note 14. 18. Barr, supra at note 11. 19. Elizabeth Beaumont, “Political Agency and Empowerment: Pathways for Developing a Sense of Efficacy in Young Adults,” in Sherrod et al., supra at note 14.
20. Cliff Zukin, Scott Keeter, et al., A New Engagement?: Political Participation,
Civic Life, and the Changing American Citizen (New York: Oxford UP, 2006); Myiah Hutchens and William Eveland, Jr., “CIRCLE Working Paper 65: The Long–Term Impact of High School Civics Curricula on Political Knowledge, Democratic Attitudes and Civic
Behaviors” (2009), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP_65_
Eveland.pdf>; Mark Hugo Lopez and Emily Kirby, “U.S. Civics Instruction:
Content and Teaching Strategies,” CIRCLE Fact Sheet (2007), via <www.
civicyouth.org/PopUps/FactSheets/FS07_ Civics_Classes.pdf>.
21. Jennifer Bachner, “From Classroom to Voting Booth: The Effect of High School Civic Education on Turnout,” (2010), via <www.gov.harvard.edu/files/uploads/CivEdTurnout_1.pdf>.
22. Reuben Thomas and Daniel McFarland, “CIRCLE Working Paper 73:
Joining Young, Voting Young: The Effects of Youth Voluntary Associations on Early
Adult Voting” (2010), via <www.civicyouth.org/featured–extracurricular–activities–
may–increase–likelihood–of–voting>.
23. Larry Bartels, Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008), p. 5; Lawrence R. Jacobs and Theda
Skocpol, (eds.), Inequality and American Democracy: What We Know and What We
Need to Learn (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005).
24. Meira Levinson, No Citizen Left Behind: Urban Schools, Youth Empowerment, and the New Civic Education (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2012).
25. United States Census Bureau, “2008 Current Population Survey Voting
and Registration Supplement,” U.S. Census Bureau (2008), availble at <www.
census.gov/apsd/techdoc/cps/cpsnov08.pdf>.
26. Mark Hugo Lopez et al., “The 2006 Civic and Political Health of the Nation:
A Detailed Look at How Youth Participate in Politics and Communities,” CIRCLE
(2006), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/2006_CPHS_Report_update.
pdf>; Mark Hugo Lopez, “Electoral Engagement among Latino Youth,”
CIRCLE (2003), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/FactSheets/FS_Electoral_
Eng_Latino_Youth.pdf>; Corporation for National and Community Service, “Civic
Life in America: Key Findings on the Civic Health of the Nation,” (2010), via
<www.civic.serve.gov/assets/resources/CHAFactSheet.pdf>; Verba, et al., supra
at note 12; Norman Nie, Jane Junn, and Kenneth Stehlik–Barry, Education
and Democratic Citizenship in America (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1996); Raymond
Wolfinger and Steven Rosenstone, Who Votes? (New Haven: Yale UP, 1980);
Kathryn Pearson and Jack Citrin, “The Political Assimilation of the Fourth
Wave” and S. Karthick Ramakrishnan, “But Do They Bowl? Race, Immigrant
Incorporation, and Civic Voluntarism in the United States,” John Mollenkopf
et al., “Politics among Young Adults in New York: The Immigrant Second
Generation,” all in Taeku Lee, S. Karthick Ramakrishnan, and Ricardo Ramírez
(eds.), Transforming Politics, Transforming America: The Political and Civic
Incorporation of Immigrants in the United States (Charlottesville, VA: University of
Virginia Press, 2006).
27. Corporation for National and Community Service, supra at note 26.
28. Robert Putnam, “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the
Twenty–First Century—the 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture,” Scandinavian
Political Studies 30, 2 (2007). 29. Yvette Alex–Assensoh, “Race, Concentrated Poverty, Social Isolation, and Political Behavior,” Urban Affairs Review 33, 2 (1997); Cathy Cohen
and Michael Dawson, “Neighborhood Poverty and African American Politics,”
American Political Science Review 87, 2(1993); Daniel Hart, et al., “Youth Bulges
in Communities: The Effects of Age Structure on Adolescent Civic Knowledge
and Civic Participation,” Psychological Science 15, 9 (2004).
30. Joseph Kahne and Ellen Middaugh, “CIRCLE Working Paper 59: Democracy for Some: The Civic Opportunity Gap in High School,” via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP59Kahne.pdf>; Joseph Kahne and Susan Sporte, “Developing Citizens: The Impact of Civic Learning Opportunities on Students' Commitment to Civic Participation,” American Educational Research Journal
45, 3 (2008).
31. Kahne and Middaugh, supra at note 30.
32. Joseph Kahne et al., “Developing Citizens for Democracy? Assessing Opportunities to Learn in Chicago's Social Studies Classrooms,” Theory and Research in Social Education 28, 3 (2000).
33. Kahne and Sporte, supra at note 30, p. 755; David Campbell, “Voice in the Classroom: How an Open Classroom Climate Fosters Political Engagement among Adolescents,” Political Behavior 30, 4 (2008); Britt Wilkenfeld, “CIRCLE Working Paper 64: Does Context Matter? How the Family, Peer, School and Neighborhood Contexts Relate to Adolescents' Civic Engagement” (2009), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/Working Papers/WP64Wilkenfeld.pdf>.
34. Delli Carpini and Keeter, supra at note 8; Verba et al., supra at note 12.
35. Donald Kinder, “Opinion and Action in the Realm of Politics,” in Daniel Gilbert, Susan Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, 4th Edition (Boston: McGraw–Hill, 1998).
36. National Research Council, Exploring the Intersection of Science
Education and 21 st Century Skills (Washington: National Academies Press, 2010); David Finegold, Susan Schurman, et al. (eds.), Transforming the U.S. Workforce Development System: Lessons from Research and Practice (Champaign: ILR Press, 2010).
37. Rudy Crew, “Four competencies for a 21 st Century education,” MultiMedia & Internet@Schools, vol. 17, 5 (2010), pp. 8–10.
38. Melissa Comber, “The Effects of Civic Education on Civic Skills,” CIRCLE Fact Sheet (2005), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/FactSheets/FS_05_effects_of_civic_education_on_civic_skills.pdf>.
39. In 2008 the Civic Mission of Schools Campaign (with support from the American Bar Association's Division for Public Education) initiated a small project to use the CIVED data to examine students' educational experiences and achievements. The results are found
in Judith Torney–Purta and Britt Wilkenfeld, “Paths to 21 st Century Competencies through Civic Education Classsrooms: An Analysis of Survey Results from Ninth Graders,” American Bar Association, Division for Public Education (2009), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/CMS–ABAtwenty–firstCentSkillsStudyExecSumFinal.pdf>; Judith
Torney–Purta, “The school's role in developing civic engagement: A study of adolescents in twenty–eight countries.” Applied Developmental Science, vol. 6
(2002).
40. See Partnership for 21 st Century Skills reports, available at <www.21stcenturyskills.org>.
41. Additional evidence on the importance of an open classroom climate in which students can explore their own ideas and learn respect for the opinions of others can be found in Judith Torney–Purta, Carolyn Barber, and Britt Wilkenfeld, “Latino adolescents' civic development in the United States: research results from the IEA civic education study,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 36, 2 (2007), p. 111–125; Jack McLeod, Dhavan Shah, et al., “Communication and education: creating competence for socialization
into public life,” in Lonnie Sherrod, Judith Torney–Purta, and Constance Flanagan (eds.), Handbook of Research on Civic Engagement in Youth (Hoboken: Wiley, 2010).
42. Slightly more than one quarter of the students were in the Neither group and students of low SES were disproportionately likely to be found there. The effects cited above were basically the same after controlling for SES. The one significant interaction effect showed that traditional teaching was of greater benefit in low–SES schools than in schools with students of middle or higher SES, especially when the cognitive achievement outcomes were examined.
43. Judith Torney–Purta, “International psychological research that matters for policy and practice,” American Psychologist, vol. 64 (2009), 822–837.
44. Two recent comprehensive handbooks contain summaries of relevant research in many nations: James Arthur, Ian Davies, and Carole Hahn, SAGE Handbook of Education for Citizenship and Democracy (Los Angeles: Sage, 2008); Sherrod, et al., supra at note 41.
45. Heather Schwartz, Laura Hamilton, et al., “Expanded Measures of School Performance,” RAND Corporation (2011), via <www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/TR968.html>.
46. Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, “Are They Really Ready to Work: Employers' Perspectives on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New Entrans to the twenty–first Century U.S. Workforce” (2006), <www.p21.org/documents/FINAL_REPORT_PDF09–
29–06.pdf>.
47. Center for Social and Emotional Education, “School Climate Guide for District Policymakers and Education Leaders” (2009), via <www.schoolclimate.org/climate/documents/dg/district–guide–csee.pdf>.
48. Gary Homana, Carolyn Barber, and Judith Torney–Purta, “CIRCLE Working Paper 48: Assessing School Citizenship Education Climate: Implications for the Social Studies” (2006), available at <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP48Homana.pdf>.
49. Jonathan Cohen, Terry Pickeral, et al., “School Climate: Research, Policy, Teacher Education and Practice,” Teachers College Record, col. 111, no. 1 (2009).
50. See, for example, James Comer, “Child and Adolescent Development: The Critical Missing Focus in School Reform,” Phi Delta Kappan , vol. 86, no. 10 (2005); G. Thomas Bellamy and John Goodlad, “Continuity and Change in the Pursuit of a Democratic Public Mission for Our Schools,” The Phi Delta Kappan , vol. 89,no. 8 (2008).
51. Supra at note 11.
52. For these and other statistics on the dropout crisis, see Alliance for Excellence in Education, “Fact Sheet: High School Dropouts in America,” (2009), via <www.all4ed.org/files/GraduationRates_FactSheet.pdf>.
53. For a discussion on causes of the dropout rate, see Robert Balfanz, John Bridgeland, et al., “Building A Grad Nation,” (2010), via <www.civicenterprises.net/pdfs/building–a–
grad–nation.pdf>.
54. Id .
55. Id .
56. Charlane Fay Starks, “Connecting Civic Education to Civil Right and Responsibility: A Strategy for Reducing High School Dropout Among African American Students,” (2010), via <www.csus–dspace.calstate.edu/xmlui/handle/10211.9/512>.
57. Alberto Dávila and Marie Mora, “CIRCLE Working Paper 52: Civic Engagement and High School Academic Progress: An Analysis Using NELS Data,” (2007), via <www.civicyouth.org/circle–working–paper–52–civic–engagement–and–high–school–academic–progress–an–analysis–using–nels–data>.
58. Id .
59. Id .
60. National Dropout Prevention Center,“Fifteen Effective Strategies for Dropout Prevention,” via <www.dropoutprevention.org/effective–strategies>.
61. Joseph Mahoney and Robert Cairns, “Do Extracurricular Activities Protect Against Early School Dropout?”, Developmental Psychology, vol. 33, no. 2 (1997).
62. Jacquelynne Eccles and Jennifer Appleton (eds.), “Community Programs to Promote Youth Development: A Report of the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Committee on Community–Level Programs for Youth” (Washington: The National Academies Press, 2002); Richard Lerner, Liberty: Thriving and Civic Engagement Among America's Youth . (Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications, 2004).
63. Seema Shah, “Building Transformative Youth Leadership: Data on the Impacts of Youth Organizing,” (2011), via <fcyo.org>; Celina Su, Streetwise for Book Smarts: Grassroots Organizing and Education Reform in the Bronx (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2009).
64. National Council for the Social Studies, “National Curriculum Standards for the Social Studies: A Framework for Teaching Learning and Assessment,” (2010), via <www.socialstudies.org/ standards>.
65. Peter Levine, Mark Hugo Lopez, and Karlo Marcelo, Getting Narrower at the Base: The American Curriculum after NCLB, CIRCLE (2008), via < www.civicyouth.org/?p=325>; National Center for Education Statistics, “The Nation's Report Card: Summary of Major Findings,” (2010), via <www.nationsreportcard.gov/civics_2010/summary.asp>.
66. Amy Syvertsen, Constance Flanagan, and Michael Stout, “CIRCLE Working Paper 57: Best Practices in Civic Education: Changes in Students' Civic Outcomes,” (2007), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP57Flanagan.pdf>.
67. Carnegie Corporation and CIRCLE, supra at note 4.
68. Paul Gagnon , “Educating Democracy: State Standards To Ensure a Civic Core,” Albert Shanker Institute (2003), via <www.ashankerinst.org/downloads/gagnon/contents.html>.
69. Marilyn Chambliss, Wendy Richardson, et al., “CIRCLE Working Paper 54: Improving Textbooks as a Way to Foster Civic Understanding and Engagement,” (2007), via <www.
civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP54Chambliss.pdf>.
70. National Center for Learning and Citizenship, Education Commission of the States, “Citizenship Education database of state civic education policies,” via <www.ecs.org/ecsmain.asp?page=/html/ProjectsPartners/nclc/nclc_main.htm>.
71. The Nation's Report Card, supra at note 65.
72. Supra at note 70.
73. Levine, et al., supra at note 65.
74. Supra at note 70.
75. The Nation's Report Card, supra at
note 65.
76. Id .
77. Robert Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven: Yale UP, 1998); Walter Parker, Teaching Democracy: Unity and Diversity in Public Life (New York: Teacher's College Press, 2003).
78. Joseph Kahne, Monica Rodriguez, et al., “Developing Citizens for Democracy? Assessing Opportunities to Learn in Chicago's Social Studies Classrooms,” Theory and Research in Social Education, vol. 28 (2000); Michael McDevitt and Spiro Kiousis, “CIRCLE Working Paper 49: Experiments in Political Socialization: Kids Voting USA
as a Model for Civic Education Reform ” (2006), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP49McDevitt.pdf>; Nancy Niemi and Richard Niemi,
“Partisanship, Participation, and Political Trust as Taught (or not) in High School
History and Government Classes,” Theory and Research in Social Education , vol.
35 (2007); David Campbell, “CIRCLE Working Paper 28: Voice in the Classroom: How an Open Classroom Environment Facilitates Adolescents' Civic Development” (2005), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP28campbell.pdf>.
79. Diana Hess, Controversy in the Classroom: The Democratic Power of Discussion (New York: Routledge, 2009); Diana Hess, “Discussing Controversial Public Issues in Secondary Social Studies Classrooms,” Theory and Research in Social Education, vol. 30 (2002); Diana Hess and Julie Posselt, “How Students Experience and Learn from the Discussion of Controversial Public Issues in Secondary Social Studies,” Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, vol. 17 (2002); Walter Parker, “Public Discourses in Schools: Purposes, Problems, Possibilities,” Educational Researcher, vol. 35 (2006); Katherine Simon, Moral Questions in the Classroom (New Haven: Yale UP, 2001); Annette Hemmings, “High School Democratic Dialogues: Possibilities for Praxis,” American Educational Research
Journal, vol. 3 (2000).
80. Bill Bishop, The Big Sort: Why the Clustering of Like–Minded America is Tearing Us Apart (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008); Campbell, supra at note 78; Hess, supra at note 79; Carol L. Hahn, Becoming Political: Comparative Perspectives on Citizenship Education (Albany: State University of New York, 1998).
81. Bishop, supra at note 80.
82. Diana Mutz, Hearing the Other Side: Deliberative Versus Participatory Democracy (New York: Cambridge UP, 2006); Patricia Avery, “Can Tolerance Be Taught,” in Walter Parker (ed.), Social Studies Today: Research and Practice (New York: Routledge, 2010).
83. See Deliberating in a Democracy (www.deliberating.org), The Choices Program (www.choices.edu), CELD (www.lawanddemocracy.org).
84. Jeremy Stoddard, Diana Hess, and Catherine Hammer, “The Challenges of Writing ‘First Draft History': The Evolution of the 9/11 Attacks and Their Aftermath in School Textbooks in the United States,” in Lyn Yates and Madeline Grumet (eds.), 2011 World Yearbook of Education: Curriculum in Today's World: Identities, Politics, Work, and Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 2011); Jonathan Zimmerman, Whose America? Culture
Wars in the Public Schools (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2002).
85. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1922), p. 112.
86. Shelley Billig, Sue Root, and Dan Jesse, “CIRCLE Working Paper 33: The Impact of Participation in Service Learning on High School Students' Civic Engagement” (2005), via <www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP33Billig.pdf>.
87. Judy Northup, “Cluster Evaluation of Illinois Learn and Serve, 2009–2010” (Denver: RMC Research Corporation).
88. Judy Northup, “Cluster Evaluation of Learn and Serve Michigan, 2009–2010”
(Denver: RMC Research Corporation).
89. Judy Northup and Stephany Brown, “Cluster Evaluation of Ohio Learn and Serve, 2009–2010,” (Denver: RMC Research Corporation).
90. Carnegie Corporation and CIRCLE, supra at note 4.
91. National Youth Leadership Council, “K–12 Service–Learning Standards for Quality Practice,” (2008), via <www.nylc.org/sites/nylc.org/files/files/Standards_Oct2009–web.pdf>.
92. National Research Council, Engaging Schools: Fostering High School Students' Motivation to Learn (Washington: National Academy, 2004).
93. Id .
94. Shelley Billig, Impacts of Service Learning on Participating K–12 Students Denver: RMC Research Corporation, 2007).
95. Peter Scales, Eugene Roehlkepartain, et al., “Reducing academic achievement gaps: The role of community service and service–learning,” Journal of Experiential Education, vol. 29 (2006), p. 38–60.
96. Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst, “Research on Teacher Performance Criteria,” in B.O. Smith (ed.), Research in Teacher Education: A Symposium (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice–Hall, 1973); Linda Darling–Hammond, Arthur Wise, and Sara Pease, “Teacher evaluation in the organizational context: A review of the literature,” Review of Educational <span style="